 ostsecondary education has been shown to lead to better employment and improved life outcomes, but for many individuals with disabilities, college remains an unrealized dream. Compared to those without disabilities, only two-thirds as many working-age adults with disabilities have attended college, and fewer than half as many have attained a bachelor’s degree or higher.
A disability is defined in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as:
(1) a mental or physical impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities (sometimes called an actual, or present, disability); or
(2) a record of a mental or physical impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities (sometimes referred to as a history of a disability); or
(3) being “regarded as” having a mental or physical impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities (also called a perceived disability).
Postsecondary education leads to better employment and improved life outcomes, but for many people with disabilities, college remains an unrealized dream. In 2005, of working-age adults with disabilities, 24.8% had less than a high school education, while 34.5% had no more than a high school diploma or equivalent. Among those without disabilities, 11.5% had less than a high school education and 27.9% had no more than a high school diploma or equivalent. Thus, compared to those without disabilities, only two-thirds of those with disabilities have attended college. This disparity continues at the postsecondary level, with 28.0% of those with disabilities having some college and 12.8% having a bachelor’s degree or more, compared to 30.5% and 30.1% respectively for those without disabilities.
The disparity in educational access experienced by individuals with disabilities translates to similar disparities in employment. In a 2005 analysis, the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Disability Demographics and Statistics reported that the employment rate of working-age adults (21-64) with disabilities was less than half of that for working-age adults without disabilities (38.1% compared to 78.3%). Median wages for working-age adults with disabilities and without disabilities employed full-time, full-year differed by approximately $6,000. The poverty rate for working-age individuals with disabilities is nearly three times that of those without disabilities. The table below clearly displays the disparity.
| Working-Age Adults |
With Disabilities |
Without Disabilities |
| Educational Achievement |
|
|
| Less than high school |
24.8% |
11.5% |
| No more than high school |
34.5% |
27.9% |
| Some college |
28.0% |
30.5% |
| Bachelor's or higher |
12.8% |
30.1% |
| Employment rate |
38.1% |
78.3% |
| Median wage |
$30,000 |
$36,000 |
| Poverty rate |
24.6% |
9.3% |
Just 22.6% of working-age people with disabilities have full-time, full-year employment, vs. 56.2% for those without disabilities. Median wage for those employed full-time, full year are approximately $30,000 vs. $36,000, respectively. Of working-age people with disabilities, 24.6% live in poverty, compared to 9.3% of those without disabilities.
Fortunately, college-going trends for students with disabilities are moving in the right direction. Newman (2005) compared college participation data for youth with disabilities age 15 to 19 who had been out-of-school (as graduates or dropouts) for up to two years. Data collection took place in 1987 for Cohort 1 and in 2003 for Cohort 2 as part of the National Longitudinal Transition Study and the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2005). Information was obtained from parent interviews in 1987 and from both parent and youth interviews in 2003. Over this time period, the percentage of youth with disabilities attending postsecondary schools after leaving high school more than doubled, from 15% (Cohort 1) to 32% (Cohort 2). At the time of the 2003 interviews, 19% of those in the study were attending postsecondary school, compared to 42% of the general population (Newman, 2005).
The 1995-96 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) reported that approximately 6% of undergraduates reported having a disability, with the largest groups among these having learning disabilities and/or orthopedic impairments. Students with disabilities tended to be older and were more likely to attend two-year rather than four-year institutions, compared to students without disabilities (Hurst & Smerdon, 2000). The NPSAS study did not include psychiatric disabilities as a category, but students with diagnosed psychiatric disabilities (such as depression, bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, or schizophrenia) are generally entitled to the same types of general support and specific accommodations as other students with disabilities. Among college students, psychiatric disabilities are increasing and may be even more common than learning disabilities (Sharpe, Bruininks, Blacklock, Benson & Johnson, 2004). From Spring 2000 to Spring 2005, the number of college students who said they had been diagnosed with depression increased 56%, from 10.3% to 16.1% (American College Health Association 2000, 2006). Over a third of college students surveyed who report that they have been diagnosed with depression stated that their first diagnosis occurred within the past year. During the same period from 2000 to 2005, reported anxiety disorders increased from 6.7% to 8.5%. In Spring 2005, depression, anxiety disorders, and/or seasonal affective disorder were together cited by 16.3% of students as health-related impediments to their academic performance. For comparison, the top health-related impediment was stress, at 31.6%, followed by cold/flu/sore throat at 26.5%. Many universities now have extensive online resources for faculty and staff who may encounter students experiencing psychological distress. (See the Resources section at the end of the article for examples.)
Federal Law
Since the 1960s, Congress has passed a number of civil rights laws intended to protect the rights of Americans who may face discrimination in publicly financed education because of their race, gender, disability, or age. These laws reflect the core value – that each individual should have the opportunity to develop his or her talents to the fullest (U. S. Department of Education, 1999). For preschoolers and young people in elementary and secondary schools, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), most recently reauthorized in 2004, has helped those with disabilities gain access to the “free, appropriate public education” mandated by Congress.
When students with disabilities leave the relatively protected environment of public secondary school and enroll at a college or university they continue to have rights that prohibit discrimination in programs because of their disability (U. S. Department of Education, 1998). College students are protected under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, and/or by Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights is responsible for enforcing these laws in postsecondary settings and has the responsibility of both supporting individuals’ rights and helping to disseminate the rules and regulations of these acts. Nearly every American college and university that receives any type of federal funding is subject to one or both of these laws, which have similar requirements. (Private postsecondary institutions that do not receive federal financial assistance are governed by Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, which is enforced by the U.S. Department of Justice and which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability by private entities.) For students with disabilities who attend college, it is critical they have an accurate understanding of their civil rights, an ability to advocate for themselves, and knowledge of the accommodations and assistance that can be obtained on their campus to alleviate the effects of their disability (Stodden & Conway, 2003; U. S. Department of Education, 2007a).
Disability Disclosure
Disclosure of certain disabilities to others can be a significant issue for college-age individuals – especially hidden or non-apparent disabilities, such as mental illness, learning disabilities, chronic health conditions, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Many students with hidden disabilities seek to avoid the labels that dogged them in high school and choose not to disclose, thereby foregoing accommodations for which they may qualify. This situation is unfortunate because many students end up deciding to disclose their disability only after they have begun coursework and gotten behind in their studies or performed poorly on exams.
If students decide to disclose for the purpose of accessing accommodations, they must make their needs known by contacting the campus disability services’ office. Once students make the decision to disclose, they need to consider how to go about discussing their needs with faculty. In The 411 on Disability Disclosure: A Workbook for Youth with Disabilities (National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth, 2005), the authors recommend that students focus on how the disability impacts their ability to learn and how the accommodations or modifications needed will help them access the learning environment. Chapter 6 of this workbook deals specifically with disclosure as it relates to postsecondary education.
Admissions and Accommodations
The Office of Civil Rights in the U. S. Department of Education (U. S. Department of Education, 2007b) provides guidance on college admissions, explaining that colleges may not ask applicants about their disability status but may ask the individual whether he or she is able to meet the program’s essential requirements. Following admission, a college may ask the student for documentation of disability status, but only in response to that student’s request for academic adjustments, accessible housing, other reasonable accommodations, or auxiliary aids and services. Absent such a student-initiated request, students with disabilities have no obligation to inform a college of their disability status, either before or after admission. Postsecondary institutions are under no obligation to identify students with disabilities, and individual disclosure of a disability is always voluntary. It is good practice, however, for faculty members to inform their classes that students may talk with them privately about disability concerns, and to share information about the institution’s disability services office and other resources available to help students. Academic adjustments or accommodations may take many forms. (See sidebar on following page for information concerning what the law requires concerning academic adjustments.)
Common academic accommodations include, but are not limited to:
Accessible classroom location
Advance notice of assignments
Assistive computer technology
Notetakers
Readers
Interpreters
Lab or library assistants
Open/closed captioned videos/films
Course or program modifications
Document conversion (Braille, large print, tape)
Early syllabus
Exam modifications (e.g., extended time, alternative test format, quiet space for testing)
Priority registration
The HEATH Resource Center—Online Clearinghouse on Postsecondary Education provides a wealth of resources for postsecondary students with disabilities and their families. Also, the Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD), the professional association of disability services providers, has many publications on disability accommodations.
Universal Design: An Inclusive Instructional Approach
Some students lack adequate documentation to receive accommodations or other supports available at their college. As result, there are many students attending college who could be more successful if their postsecondary institutions worked on becoming more accessible to all students. Many resources are available to assist faculty in providing what is called “universally designed instruction.” (See again the Resources section.) Some colleges and universities recognize that students have a variety of learning needs and have adopted the concept of universal instructional design. Common examples of instructional strategies that incorporate universal design include, but are not limited to:
Using two or more ways to explain information.
Providing demonstrations, handouts and visual aids.
Using captioning options on videos.
Providing review materials and study guides for exams.
Making lecture notes available (Johnson & Fox, 2003).
Students with disabilities want what every other student wants – the opportunity to learn, to work, and to achieve. Improved access to college and more universally designed instruction can tip the balance for many individuals, making it possible for them to make a successful transition to college where they can nurture skills, pursue interests, and eventually participate fully in the workforce.
Chris Bremer is a Research Associate at the Institute on Community Integration in the College of Education at the University of Minnesota, and can be reached at breme006@umn.edu.
Joe Timmons is a Research Fellow at the Institute on Community Integration in the College of Education at the University of Minnesota.
Donna Johnson is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute on Community Integration in the College of Education at the University of Minnesota.
Academic Adjustments
The Office of Civil Rights, in their publication, Transition of Students With Disabilities To Postsecondary Education: A Guide for High School Educators, provides this guidance on academic adjustments: Academic adjustments are defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R. § 104.44(a) (2006) as:
[S]uch modifications to the academic requirements as are necessary to ensure that such requirements do not discriminate or have the effect of discriminating, on the basis of [disability] against a qualified ... applicant or student [with a disability]. Academic requirements that the recipient can demonstrate are essential to the instruction being pursued by such student or to any directly related licensing requirement will not be regarded as discriminatory within the meaning of this section. Modifications may include changes in the length of time permitted for the completion of degree requirements, substitution of specific courses required for the completion of degree requirements, and adaptation of the manner in which specific courses are conducted.
Academic adjustments also may include a reduced course load, extended time on tests and the provision of auxiliary aids and services.
Auxiliary aids and services are defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R. § 104.44(d), and in the Title II regulations at 28 C.F.R. § 35.104. They include note-takers, readers, recording devices, sign language interpreters, screen-readers, voice recognition and other adaptive software or hardware for computers, and other devices designed to ensure the participation of students with impaired sensory, manual or speaking skills in an institution’s programs and activities. Institutions are not required to provide personal devices and services such as attendants, individually prescribed devices, such as eyeglasses, readers for personal use or study, or other services of a personal nature, such as tutoring. If institutions offer tutoring to the general student population, however, they must ensure that tutoring services also are available to students with disabilities. In some instances, a state VR agency may provide auxiliary aids and services to support an individual’s postsecondary education and training once that individual has been determined eligible to receive services under the VR program.
References
American College Health Association. (2000). American College Health Association-National college health assessment: Reference group data report spring 2000. Baltimore: Author.
American College Health Association. (2006). American College Health Association-National college health assessment: Reference group data report spring 2006. Baltimore: Author.
Hurst, D., & Smerdon, B. (2000). Postsecondary students with disabilities: Enrollment, services, and persistence. Education Statistics Quarterly, 2(3), 55-58.
Johnson, D. M, & Fox, J. A. (2003). Creating curb cuts in the classroom: Adapting universal design principles to education. In Higbee, J. L. (ed.), Curriculum transformation and disability: Implementing universal design in higher education. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2000). Postsecondary students with disabilities: Enrollment, services, and persistence. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000092.pdf.
National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth. (2005). The 411 on disability disclosure: A workbook for youth with disabilities. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.ncwd-youth.info/assets/guides/411/411_Disability_Disclosure_complete.pdf.
Newman, L. (2005). Changes in Postsecondary Education Participation of Youth with Disabilities. In M. Wagner, L. Newman, R. Cameto, & P. Levine (Eds.), Changes over time in the early postschool outcomes of youth with disabilities. A report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) and the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), (pp. 4-1 – 4-10). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved October 12, 2007 from http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2005_06/.
Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Disability Demographics and Statistics. (2005). 2005 Disability status reports. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi/disabilitystatistics/.
Sharpe, M.N., Bruininks, B. D., Blacklock, B. A., Benson, B., & Johnson, D. M. (2004). The emergence of psychiatric disabilities in postsecondary education. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc.asp?id=1688.
Stodden, R. A., & Conway, M. A. (2003). Supporting individuals with disabilities in postsecondary education. American Rehabilitation, 27(1), 24-34.
Wagner, M., Cameto, R., & Newman, L. (2003). Youth with disabilities: A changing population. A report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) and the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2003_04-1/index.html.
Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., & Levine, P. (2005). Changes over time in the early postschool outcomes of youth with disabilities. A report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) and the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved October 12, 2007 from http://www.nlts2.org/reports/2005_06/.
U. S. Department of Education. (1990). Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Retrieved October 29,2007, from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/hq9805.html.
U. S. Department of Education. (1998). Auxiliary aids and services for postsecondary students with disabilities: Higher education’s obligations under Section 504 and Title II of the ADA. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/auxaids.html.
U. S. Department of Education. (1999). Impact of the civil rights laws. Retrieved on October 29, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/impact.html.
U.S. Department of Education. (2007a). Students with disabilities preparing for postsecondary education: Know your rights and responsibilities. Retrieved October 29, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/transition.html.
U. S. Department of Education. (2007b). Transition of students with disabilities to postsecondary education: A guide for high school educators. Retrieved October 23, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/transitionguide.html.
Resources
Instructional Design Resources for Faculty
CAST Transforming Education through Universal Design for Learning
http://www.cast.org
Curriculum Transformation and Disability (CTAD) (University of Minnesota)
http://www.gen.umn.edu/research/CTAD/
Disabled Students Program: Teaching Students with Disabilities (University of California, Berkeley)
http://dsp.berkeley.edu/TeachStudentsWithDisab.html
Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology (DO-IT): The Faculty Room. (University of Washington)
http://www.washington.edu/doit/Faculty/
FacultyWare (University of Connecticut)
http://www.facultyware.uconn.edu/home.cfm
Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, special issue on faculty development regarding students with disabilities in postsecondary settings.
http://www.ahead.org/members/jped/journals/JPEDVol17No1.doc
Mental Health Resources for Faculty and Staff
Student Mental Health Issues - General Guidelines for Faculty and Staff (University of Minnesota)
http://www.mentalhealth.umn.edu/facstaff/general.html
Student Mental Health Issues – Distress-Specific Guidelines for Faculty and Staff (University of Minnesota)
http://www.mentalhealth.umn.edu/facstaff/specific.html
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